Sorghum Farming: Varieties, Soil Needs, and Pest Control

Sorghum, commonly known as jowar in India, is one of the most resilient cereal crops in the world. Grown primarily in drought-prone, semi-arid regions, it serves as a lifeline for millions of farmers and consumers across Africa and Asia. Whether used for food, fodder, or even ethanol production, sorghum’s versatility and hardiness make it a crop worth understanding – especially if you’re studying or practising agriculture in dryland environments.

Why sorghum matters globally and in India 🔗

Sorghum ranks among the top five cereal crops in the world, following wheat, rice, maize, and barley. Globally, sorghum is cultivated across approximately 40 million hectares, with total production exceeding 57 million tonnes. The United States leads global production, followed by Nigeria, Mexico, India, and Sudan.

In India, sorghum covers around 4 million hectares. According to government estimates, total production during 2023-24 was approximately 47.42 lakh tonnes. Maharashtra is the leading producer, contributing the largest share of rabi sorghum, followed by Karnataka, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu. Kharif sorghum is predominantly grown in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana, while rabi sorghum dominates in Maharashtra and Karnataka.

The crop’s significance goes beyond grain production. It is a critical source of fodder for livestock, and its stalks are used for roofing, fencing, and even broom-making in many rural communities.

Botanical classification and species of sorghum 🔗

Sorghum belongs to the family Poaceae (the grass family) and the tribe Andropogoneae – the same tribe that includes sugarcane and maize. The genus Sorghum contains around 27 recognised species, but three are most important from an agricultural standpoint:

Sorghum bicolor – This is the cultivated species. It is a diploid (2n=20), annual plant and includes all domesticated types such as grain sorghum, sweet sorghum, and forage sorghum (Sudangrass). S. bicolor is further divided into three subspecies: subsp. bicolor (cultivated types), subsp. verticilliflorum (wild and weedy races found mostly in Africa), and subsp. drummondii (weedy derivatives including Sudangrass and shattercane).

Sorghum halepense – Also known as Johnsongrass, this is a tetraploid perennial species native to southern Eurasia and India. It is considered an aggressive weed in many cropping systems but also serves as a genetic resource for breeding programmes.

Sorghum propinquum – A diploid perennial species native to Southeast Asia, characterised by smaller spikelets. It has potential value in breeding for perenniality and pest resistance.

Among cultivated sorghum (S. bicolor subsp. bicolor), five basic races are recognised based on spikelet and panicle shape: bicolor, guinea, caudatum, kafir, and durra. In India, the durra type is most commonly grown, producing dense, compact panicles suited to local food preparation.

Climate and soil requirements 🔗

Sorghum is a C4 plant, meaning it uses an efficient photosynthetic pathway that thrives in warm, sunny environments. The optimum temperature range for sorghum growth is 26-30°C, though it can tolerate temperatures as high as 40°C and as low as 15°C during certain growth stages. It requires about 400-600 mm of rainfall during its growing period, making it far less water-demanding than rice or sugarcane.

The crop performs best in well-drained soils with a pH range of 6.0 to 7.5. In India, sorghum is primarily cultivated in two major soil types:

Vertisols (black cotton soils) – These deep, clay-rich soils have high moisture-retention capacity and are dominant in the rabi sorghum belt of Maharashtra and Karnataka. Their ability to hold water through the dry post-monsoon season makes them ideal for rabi cultivation.

Alfisols (red soils) – Found across parts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh, these lighter soils support kharif sorghum. They drain faster and are suitable where monsoon rainfall is adequate.

Sorghum is notably salt-tolerant and can grow in marginal lands where other cereals would fail. However, waterlogged conditions are highly detrimental – the crop does not tolerate standing water.

Popular sorghum varieties in India 🔗

Farmers across India use a range of improved varieties and hybrids developed by institutions like the Indian Institute of Millets Research (IIMR), Hyderabad, and various state agricultural universities. Some notable varieties include:

CSV 15 – A widely adopted, dual-purpose variety suitable for both grain and fodder. It performs well in kharif season across multiple states.

Maldandi (M 35-1) – The dominant rabi sorghum landrace in Maharashtra and Karnataka, prized for its grain quality and excellent roti-making properties. The MSP for Maldandi sorghum in 2024-25 was Rs 3,421 per quintal.

Phule Vasudha – A rabi variety developed for improved yield and disease resistance, suitable for the Deccan Plateau region.

CSH 16 and CSH 14 – Popular kharif hybrids offering good grain yield and shoot fly tolerance.

SSG 59-3 – A multicut forage sorghum variety widely grown for livestock feed, offering multiple harvests in a single season.

Sowing and crop management practices 🔗

Sowing time and method 🔗

Sowing time is critical for sorghum and depends on the season. For kharif sorghum, planting should coincide with the onset of monsoon rains – typically the first to second week of July in most parts of India. For rabi sorghum, the ideal sowing window is mid-September to mid-October, depending on the receding monsoon.

Early sowing is strongly recommended because delayed planting increases exposure to shoot fly infestation. Seeds are sown at a depth of 3-5 cm with a spacing of 45 cm between rows and 12-15 cm between plants. The recommended seed rate is 8-10 kg per hectare for grain sorghum and 30-40 kg per hectare for forage types.

Nutrient management 🔗

Balanced fertiliser application is essential for good yields. A general recommendation for grain sorghum is 80 kg nitrogen (N), 40 kg phosphorus (P₂O₅), and 40 kg potash (K₂O) per hectare. Half the nitrogen along with full doses of phosphorus and potash should be applied as a basal dose at sowing, with the remaining nitrogen top-dressed at the knee-high stage (about 30 days after sowing).

In rainfed conditions, farmyard manure (FYM) at 5-10 tonnes per hectare improves soil structure and moisture retention. Research from the Indian Institute of Millets Research also highlights the benefits of integrating biofertilisers like Azospirillum and phosphate-solubilising bacteria (PSB) with chemical fertilisers for improved nutrient uptake and yield.

Weed management 🔗

Weeds compete aggressively with sorghum during the first 30-45 days. One or two inter-cultivations using a bullock-drawn or tractor-mounted cultivator, combined with one hand weeding, are usually sufficient. Pre-emergence application of atrazine at 0.5 kg a.i. per hectare within two days of sowing provides effective chemical weed control. However, atrazine should be used carefully in rotational systems, as residues can damage sensitive follow-up crops.

Major insect pests and their management 🔗

Sorghum shoot fly (Atherigona soccata) 🔗

The shoot fly is the most destructive pest of sorghum at the seedling stage across Asia, Africa, and Mediterranean Europe. The adult female lays eggs on the underside of young leaves. After hatching, the maggot bores into the central shoot and cuts the growing point, resulting in a characteristic symptom called “dead heart” – the central leaf wilts, dries up, and can be pulled out with a foul smell.

Damage is most severe in late-sown crops, especially under cloudy, humid conditions. Management strategies include:

Cultural control – Sow early at the onset of monsoon rains. Use resistant varieties where available. Remove and destroy infested plant stubble after harvest. Intercropping sorghum with short-duration pulses like chickpea can reduce shoot fly incidence.

Chemical control – Seed treatment with thiamethoxam 70 WS at 3 g/kg seed has proven effective in reducing dead heart percentage and improving grain yield. Neem-based insecticides (containing azadirachtin) can also be applied as foliar sprays.

Biological control – Several natural enemies, including parasitoids like Neotrichoporoides spp., help regulate shoot fly populations in the field. An integrated approach combining host-plant resistance with cultural and biological methods offers the most sustainable solution.

Stem borers 🔗

The spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus) is another major pest. Larvae bore into the stem, causing dead hearts in younger plants and tunnelling in older ones, which weakens the stalk and reduces grain fill. Management includes early planting, removal of affected plants, and application of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-based biopesticides in the whorl at the early infestation stage.

Other pests 🔗

Sorghum midge (Contarinia sorghicola) attacks at flowering, while head bugs (Calocoris angustatus) damage developing grain. Sugarcane aphid (Melanaphis sacchari) has emerged as a significant threat in recent years. For all these pests, planting resistant hybrids remains the first line of defence, supplemented by timely chemical intervention when thresholds are exceeded.

Major diseases and their management 🔗

Anthracnose 🔗

Caused by the fungus Colletotrichum sublineolum, anthracnose is one of the most damaging diseases of sorghum worldwide. It affects leaves, stalks, and panicles. On leaves, small circular red lesions with distinct margins appear during the mid-to-late growth stages. Stalk infection can cause brick-red discolouration of the pith, disrupting water and nutrient flow to the grain head and resulting in significant yield losses.

The pathogen survives on crop debris and can also be seed-borne. Warm, humid conditions favour disease spread. Management relies on planting resistant hybrids, crop rotation (rotating with non-host crops like cotton or wheat for at least two years), good residue management through tillage, and fungicide seed treatments.

Downy mildew 🔗

Sorghum downy mildew is caused by Peronosclerospora sorghi. The pathogen infects seedlings systemically through the roots via soil-borne spores. Infected plants show pale yellow striping or mottling on leaves, with a white or greyish downy growth visible on the underside. Affected leaves eventually shred, and plants become stunted and sterile, failing to produce grain.

The fungus also propagates on Johnsongrass (S. halepense), which serves as an alternate host. Control measures include planting genetically resistant hybrids, treating seeds with systemic fungicides like metalaxyl, practising crop rotation, and eliminating weed hosts from around the field.

Grain mould 🔗

Grain mould is a complex disease involving multiple fungi including Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Curvularia species. It develops when prolonged wet weather occurs during grain maturation, leading to mouldy, discoloured grain and reduced quality. Early-maturing varieties with compact grain and good glume coverage are less susceptible. Timely harvesting as soon as the grain reaches physiological maturity is the most practical management step.

Other diseases 🔗

Additional diseases include charcoal rot (Macrophomina phaseolina), which affects drought-stressed plants during grain filling; rust (Puccinia purpurea), which produces reddish-brown pustules on leaves; and ergot (Claviceps sorghi), a fungal disease that attacks unfertilised florets and replaces grain with a sticky, honeydew-like substance. According to a comprehensive review published in Sustainability journal, yield losses from fungal diseases in sorghum can range from 10 to 30%, with complete crop failure possible under heavy pressure.

Harvesting and post-harvest handling 🔗

Sorghum is ready for harvest when the grains are hard and the moisture content drops to around 20-25%. For kharif sorghum, this is typically October-November; for rabi, it is February-March. The panicles are cut, dried in the sun for a few days, and then threshed manually or mechanically.

Post-harvest, the grain should be dried to below 12% moisture for safe storage. Stored sorghum can be attacked by the lesser grain borer and other storage insects, so proper fumigation and use of airtight storage containers are important. In many parts of India, farmers store sorghum in traditional mud bins or metal drums.

The future of sorghum farming 🔗

With climate change increasing the frequency and severity of droughts, sorghum’s natural resilience gives it a strategic advantage over more water-intensive cereals. India’s push to promote millets – including sorghum – under the International Year of Millets (2023) initiative has already improved market awareness and demand. Research continues at institutions like IIMR and ICRISAT to develop high-yielding, biofortified, and pest-resistant varieties suited to changing conditions.

For smallholder farmers in semi-arid regions, sorghum remains not just a crop but a form of insurance against unpredictable weather – a hardy grain that delivers food, fodder, and income even in the toughest seasons.

What do you think? Given the growing challenges of water scarcity and climate variability, do you believe sorghum deserves more policy support and research investment compared to water-intensive crops like rice? How can farmers in your region be encouraged to adopt improved sorghum varieties and management practices?

References

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2. https://angrau.ac.in/downloads/AMIC/OutlookReports/2023_24/sorghum%20outlook-June-july-2023-24.pdf
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