Popular Rice-Based Cropping Systems in India

Rice is the backbone of Indian agriculture, covering approximately 44 million hectares of cultivated land and feeding over half the country’s population. But growing rice alone year after year is neither practical nor profitable. That’s why farmers across India follow rice-based cropping systems – carefully planned sequences of crops grown alongside or after rice to make the best use of land, water, and nutrients. These rotations vary significantly between irrigated and rainfed regions, and understanding them is essential for anyone studying Indian agriculture.

What is a rice-based cropping system? 🔗

A rice-based cropping system is a combination of farming practices where rice serves as the primary crop, followed by the cultivation of one or more secondary crops in the same field during the same agricultural year. These secondary crops can be cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, or even fibre crops. The choice depends on local agro-ecological conditions, available irrigation, market demand, and the farmer’s resources.

According to research published by ICAR’s Indian Institute of Rice Research, rice-based cropping systems in India range from intensive triple-crop rotations (rice-rice-rice) to simpler two-crop sequences involving cereals, pulses, or oilseeds after rice. The key idea is to keep the land productive throughout the year while maintaining soil health.

India’s rice-growing regions can be broadly divided into two categories for cropping system purposes: irrigated areas (where assured water supply allows intensive cropping) and rainfed areas (where crops must rely on residual soil moisture and limited rainfall after the monsoon).

Rice-based cropping systems in irrigated areas of north India 🔗

Northern India’s irrigated regions – particularly the Indo-Gangetic Plains spanning Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar – have developed some of the most productive rice-based cropping systems in the country. The availability of canal and tubewell irrigation enables farmers to grow two or even three crops per year.

Rice-wheat system 🔗

The rice-wheat rotation is the most dominant cropping system in northern India. It occupies around 10 million hectares in India alone and is practiced extensively in Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Rice is grown during the kharif season (June-October), taking advantage of the warm, humid monsoon months. Wheat follows in the rabi season (November-April), thriving in the cooler, drier winter conditions.

This system works because rice and wheat have complementary requirements – rice needs waterlogged, warm conditions while wheat prefers well-pulverized, aerobic soil with moderate temperatures. Together, this rotation contributes roughly 75% of India’s national food grain procurement. However, research published in Frontiers in Plant Science has raised sustainability concerns, particularly around declining groundwater levels in Punjab and Haryana, where 80% of monitored groundwater blocks are classified as overexploited.

Rice-barley system 🔗

In areas where the rabi season is shortened due to late rice harvesting, or where water availability is limited, barley serves as a practical alternative to wheat. Barley matures faster and requires less irrigation than wheat. This system is particularly relevant in parts of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. An additional advantage is that barley provides good-quality fodder, making it attractive for farmers who also raise livestock.

Rice-toria (Indian rapeseed) system 🔗

Toria is a short-duration oilseed crop that matures in just 90-100 days, fitting neatly into the window after rice harvest. This rotation is gaining popularity in Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Toria provides cooking oil and oilcake (used as cattle feed), and its deep taproot helps break the hard soil pan (compacted layer) that rice cultivation creates through repeated puddling.

Rice-gram (chickpea) system 🔗

Growing gram (chickpea) after rice is a widely practiced rotation in irrigated areas of north and central India. Gram is a legume, which means it hosts nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium) in its root nodules. These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use, naturally enriching the soil. This reduces the need for chemical nitrogen fertilizers in the subsequent rice crop – a significant cost saving for farmers.

The rice-gram system also provides a protein-rich food source and commands good market prices, making it economically attractive. Farmers typically select short-duration rice varieties that mature by September, allowing timely sowing of gram by October.

Intensive triple cropping: rice-potato-blackgram 🔗

In regions with excellent irrigation facilities – particularly parts of West Bengal and Bihar – farmers practice an intensive triple cropping system with rice, potato, and blackgram in the same year. The sequence works like this:

Kharif (June-October): Rice is grown during the monsoon. Early rabi (October-January): Potato is planted immediately after rice harvest, taking advantage of the cool winter months that suit potato growth. Late rabi/summer (February-May): After the potato harvest, blackgram (urad) is sown as a quick-maturing pulse crop.

Research from The Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences found that rice-potato-blackgram achieved the highest system productivity among various diversified rotations tested. A separate study in Chhattisgarh, published in the International Journal of Agronomy, confirmed that this system delivered the highest relative production efficiency compared to other rice-based sequences.

This system is capital-intensive because potato requires significant investment in seed, fertilizer, and irrigation. However, the returns are excellent – potato is a high-value crop, and blackgram adds both income and soil nitrogen through biological fixation.

Rice-based cropping systems in rainfed areas 🔗

Rainfed agriculture presents different challenges. Without assured irrigation, the rabi (winter) crop must survive on residual soil moisture – the water left in the soil after the rice harvest. This limits options to short-duration, drought-tolerant crops, primarily pulses. India has approximately 11.6 million hectares of rice-fallow land, and much of it is in eastern states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal, and parts of Bihar.

Rice-pea system 🔗

Field pea is grown after rice in several rainfed areas of eastern India, particularly in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and parts of Odisha. Pea can tolerate moderate water stress while still producing reasonable yields. Like other legumes, it fixes atmospheric nitrogen, improving soil fertility for the next rice crop. A study published in the Journal of Cleaner Production found that rice-pea systems had high energy productivity and low greenhouse gas emissions, making them both productive and environmentally sustainable for rainfed conditions.

Rice-gram (chickpea) system in rainfed areas 🔗

Chickpea after rainfed rice is practiced extensively in central and eastern India. The success of this system depends heavily on two factors: selecting short-duration rice varieties that free the field by September, and timely sowing of gram to make the best use of residual moisture. In states like Chhattisgarh, Bihar, and West Bengal, farmers often use a technique called utera (relay) cropping – broadcasting chickpea seeds into the standing rice crop about 10-12 days before harvest. This gives the chickpea a head start without requiring separate land preparation.

According to a review in Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, reduced tillage techniques have been shown to increase pulse yields by 33-44% compared to conventional tillage in rice-fallow systems, particularly for chickpea, lentil, and blackgram.

Rice-lentil system 🔗

Lentil (masoor) is one of the most suitable crops for rainfed rice fallows because it has a short duration (100-110 days) and very low water requirements. In India, the rice-lentil system is dominant in eastern Uttar Pradesh, parts of Bihar, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh. About 90% of India’s lentil is grown on conserved soil moisture in rainfed and dryland areas after the monsoon.

Research conducted by ICAR-Research Complex for Eastern Region confirmed that rice-chickpea, rice-lentil, and rice-safflower rotations under zero-tillage practices significantly improved system productivity, water use efficiency, and net returns. The rice-lentil system specifically showed 21-42% higher annual productivity compared to conventional practices.

A common method for establishing lentil in these areas is relay or paira cropping, where lentil seeds are broadcast into the maturing rice crop. This technique saves time and money on land preparation while utilising residual fertility and moisture.

Why do these rotations matter? Key benefits 🔗

Rice-based cropping systems are not just about growing more crops – they deliver multiple agronomic, economic, and environmental benefits that make farming more sustainable.

Soil fertility improvement 🔗

Including legumes (gram, lentil, pea, blackgram) in the rotation adds nitrogen to the soil through biological fixation. Studies from the Eastern Gangetic Plains have demonstrated that adding legumes to rice-based sequences measurably increases soil organic carbon, available nitrogen, and phosphorus compared to rice-wheat or rice-fallow systems. This reduces dependence on expensive chemical fertilizers over time.

Pest and disease cycle disruption 🔗

Continuous rice cultivation allows specific pests, diseases, and weeds to build up in the field. Rotating with different crops breaks these cycles. For example, wheat-specific pathogens do not affect chickpea, and vice versa. This natural pest management reduces the need for pesticides.

Better water use efficiency 🔗

Different crops have different water needs. Pairing a high-water crop (rice) with a low-water rabi crop (lentil or gram) makes more efficient use of available water across the year. This is particularly critical in areas facing groundwater depletion.

Economic stability for farmers 🔗

Relying on a single crop is risky – one bad harvest can devastate a family’s income. Multiple crops across seasons spread this risk and provide income at different points throughout the year. Diversified rotations like rice-potato-blackgram generate significantly higher net returns than simple rice-wheat or rice-fallow systems.

Challenges in adopting rice-based rotations 🔗

Despite clear benefits, several challenges limit the adoption of diversified rice-based cropping systems across India.

Residual soil moisture constraints: In rainfed areas, the topsoil dries quickly after rice harvest. Heavy clay soils form large clods when ploughed, making seedbed preparation difficult and reducing the establishment of rabi crops. Zero-tillage and relay cropping techniques help address this, but they require knowledge and sometimes specialised equipment.

Late rice harvesting: Many farmers grow medium to long-duration rice varieties that are harvested in November or even later. This delays rabi crop sowing, pushing crops into terminal heat and drought stress, which lowers yields. Switching to short-duration rice varieties is a solution, but farmers may resist if those varieties yield less rice.

Market access and price risk: Growing a diverse set of crops only makes sense if farmers can sell the produce at fair prices. In areas with poor market linkages, this remains a challenge, particularly for pulse and oilseed crops.

Capital requirements: Intensive systems like rice-potato-blackgram require significant upfront investment in seed potatoes, fertilizers, and irrigation. Small and marginal farmers may lack the capital or credit access to adopt such systems.

The path forward 🔗

India’s agricultural research institutions are actively working to make rice-based cropping systems more productive and sustainable. Key strategies include promoting conservation agriculture (zero-tillage, residue retention), developing shorter-duration rice and pulse varieties, and expanding irrigation infrastructure in eastern India’s rice-fallow regions. Integrating legumes and oilseeds into rice fallows is seen as a high-priority intervention for improving both farmer incomes and national pulse production.

The All India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project (AICRIP) has been evaluating rice-based cropping systems at multiple locations for over a decade, generating data on which rotations work best under different agro-ecological conditions. Their findings consistently show that rice-maize rotations produce the highest equivalent yields, while rice-pulse and rice-oilseed systems offer the best soil health benefits.

What do you think? Given the groundwater crisis in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, should Indian agricultural policy prioritise shifting farmers away from the rice-wheat system toward more water-efficient rotations? And for rainfed regions, what role can zero-tillage and relay cropping play in making rice-pulse systems more accessible to small farmers?

References

1. https://icar.org.in/sites/default/files/inline-files/Rice-based-cropping-systems.pdf
2. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-9875-8_7
3. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2022.832683/full
4. https://epubs.icar.org.in/index.php/IJAgS/article/view/23061
5. https://www.agronomyjournals.com/archives/2025/vol8issue3/PartI/8-3-103-685.pdf
6. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652617309162
7. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-food-systems/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1502759/full
8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7341809/
9. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/12/10/2393