Fertilizer and Pesticide Use in Indian Agriculture: Trends and Implications

India’s agricultural transformation over the past six decades has been nothing short of remarkable. At the heart of this transformation lies a critical shift in how farmers manage soil nutrients and protect their crops – through the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. While these inputs powered the country’s food revolution, their growing environmental and health costs are now pushing the sector toward a more balanced and sustainable path.

The Green Revolution and the fertilizer surge 🔗

Before the 1950s, fertilizer use in India was minimal, largely confined to plantation crops. Everything changed with the arrival of high-yielding crop varieties (HYVs) and the expansion of irrigated farmland during the Green Revolution of the 1960s. Fertilizer-responsive seed varieties needed chemical nutrients to deliver their full potential, and farmers responded accordingly.

The numbers tell a clear story. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), total NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) consumption in India grew nine-fold – from 2 million to 18 million tonnes – between 1969-70 and 1999-2000. Per-hectare consumption jumped from just 11 kg to nearly 95 kg in the same period. From the earlier baseline of approximately 290 thousand tonnes in 1960-61, fertilizer use crossed 16 million tonnes by 2002-03, representing one of the fastest rates of growth among major agricultural economies.

Which crops drive the most consumption? 🔗

FAO data on fertilizer use by crop in India shows that six crops – rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, rapeseed, and mustard – account for more than two-thirds of total fertilizer use. Paddy rice alone, grown on around 44.7 million hectares, makes up nearly 32% of total fertilizer consumption. Wheat follows at around 20.5%. This concentration of usage reflects the dominance of irrigated, high-yield cropping systems in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.

Irrigation plays a key role here. About 40% of India’s agricultural area is irrigated, yet it accounts for over 68% of total fertilizer consumption. Irrigated wheat, for instance, receives almost double the fertilizer per hectare compared to rainfed wheat.

India’s position as a global fertilizer giant 🔗

India is today the second-largest consumer and third-largest producer of fertilizers globally. Total fertilizer production rose from 385 lakh metric tonnes (LMT) in 2014-15 to over 503 LMT in 2023-24. In 2023-24, India consumed 601 LMT of fertilizers – producing 503 LMT domestically and importing 177 LMT. While the country has achieved 87% self-sufficiency in urea and 90% in NPK, it remains 100% import-dependent for Muriate of Potash (MOP), a vulnerability that has drawn attention from policymakers.

By 2025, India’s fertilizer consumption is projected to reach approximately 610 LMT, up from 579 LMT in 2021-22, reflecting an annual growth rate of about 2.6%. Uttar Pradesh leads state-level consumption at 120 LMT, followed by Punjab and Haryana – the original heartlands of the Green Revolution.

The urea imbalance problem 🔗

A persistent structural challenge in India’s fertilizer sector is the disproportionate consumption of urea relative to other nutrients. Urea is the most widely used fertilizer because it is a rich, affordable source of nitrogen. Urea consumption has risen by over a third since 2009-10, driven largely by its heavily subsidized price – currently around ₹5,628 per tonne compared to ₹27,000 for DAP and ₹34,000 for MOP. This pricing gap makes it near-impossible for farmers to follow the 4:2:1 NPK ratio considered ideal for Indian soils, resulting in nitrogen-heavy, nutrient-imbalanced fertilization. The long-term consequence is declining soil health and diminishing returns on fertilizer investment.

Pesticide use: a more complicated picture 🔗

Unlike fertilizers, where the trend has been largely upward, pesticide use in India presents a more mixed trajectory. India’s annual pesticide production losses from pests are estimated at as high as US$ 42.66 million, creating strong economic justification for chemical pest control. Yet the overall consumption pattern has been one of gradual decline at the national level, even as certain regions and crop systems show increases.

Pesticide consumption per hectare of gross cropped area declined from 0.322 kg/ha in 2017-18 to 0.289 kg/ha in 2021-22 – a drop of over 10%. Total consumption also fell from 63,284 tonnes in 2021-22 to 52,466 tonnes in 2022-23. Compared globally, India’s per-hectare pesticide use of around 0.5 kg/ha is very low – other nations use up to 17 kg per hectare – yet paradoxically, pesticide residues in Indian food products remain a significant concern.

Regional and crop-based variations 🔗

Research published in the journal Sustainability (MDPI) highlights wide regional disparities. States like Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and Haryana have shown declining pesticide use compared to earlier periods, while Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh have seen dramatic increases – in some cases exceeding 300-600%. In J&K, this surge is tied to the expansion of apple and high-value vegetable cultivation, which typically demands more intensive pest management.

Maharashtra consistently records the highest total pesticide consumption, followed by Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Telangana, and Haryana. The insecticide share of total pesticide use, which was over 70% in the early 2000s, has declined to around 39% by 2016-17, while herbicides and fungicides have grown in share – reflecting a shift in pest dynamics and cropping patterns.

Environmental and health consequences 🔗

The environmental costs of pesticide overuse are well-documented. A comprehensive review in the journal Environmental Science and Pollution Research found that intensive pesticide application has led to soil and water contamination across multiple Indian states, with residues of banned organochlorides like DDT and HCH still detected in groundwater and surface water, often exceeding WHO safety limits. Soil microbial activity, essential for long-term fertility, is also severely disrupted.

Pesticides also threaten biodiversity – over 80% of threatened bird species globally experience negative impacts due to pesticide exposure, and Indian agroecosystems reflect this, with herbicide applications significantly reducing plant species diversity and richness. For farming communities, the personal health toll is severe. A 2020 study in BMC Public Health estimated 385 million cases of unintentional acute pesticide poisoning occur globally each year, and approximately 44% of farmers in South Asia are poisoned annually – the highest rates in any region.

Shifting toward organic manure and compost 🔗

In response to the documented costs of chemical input dependency, Indian agriculture is progressively embracing organic alternatives. The integration of organic manure, compost, vermicompost, and biofertilizers is being promoted not just as an environmental measure, but as a practical strategy to restore soil health, reduce input costs, and improve long-term productivity.

The Indian government has launched several flagship initiatives to accelerate this transition. Under the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER), farmers receive financial assistance of ₹31,000 and ₹32,500 per hectare respectively over three years for organic inputs including seeds, biofertilizers, biopesticides, organic manure, and vermicompost. The schemes also support farmer producer organizations (FPOs), certification, value addition, and marketing of organic produce.

The PM-PRANAM programme (PM Programme for Restoration, Awareness, Nourishment, and Amelioration of Mother Earth) incentivizes states and union territories to promote organic and bio-fertilizers by sharing 50% of the fertilizer subsidy saved with state governments for reinvestment in sustainable agriculture. The government also provides Market Development Assistance of ₹1,500 per metric tonne for fermented organic manure to make organic inputs more cost-competitive for farmers.

Benefits of organic inputs for soil and sustainability 🔗

Organic manure and compost offer several advantages that chemical fertilizers cannot replicate. They improve soil structure and water retention, replenish microbial diversity, and provide a slow-release supply of multiple nutrients. Unlike urea, which contributes to nitrous oxide emissions – a potent greenhouse gas – organic inputs help close nutrient cycles and reduce agriculture’s carbon footprint. Under the National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP), 50% subsidies are extended for biofertilizers including Rhizobium culture, Phosphate Solubilising Bacteria (PSB), and vermicompost to ensure farmers have affordable access to these inputs.

Biopesticides represent another important frontier. Currently, biopesticide use in India accounts for only around 8% of total pesticide consumption. Expanding this share is a central goal of sustainable agriculture policy, with numerous eco-friendly plant-based and microbial biopesticides now commercially available in the Indian market.

The road ahead: balancing productivity and sustainability 🔗

India’s fertilizer and pesticide journey reflects a broader global tension between feeding a growing population and protecting the ecological systems that make farming possible. The country has made important strides – from near-zero chemical inputs in the 1950s to a modern agri-input sector that supports food security for over 1.4 billion people. But the path forward requires correcting the structural distortions that have accumulated along the way: the urea subsidy imbalance that discourages balanced nutrition, the regional pockets of pesticide overuse, and the slow pace of biopesticide and organic farming adoption at scale.

Encouraging signs exist. The declining national trend in per-hectare pesticide use, the growth of certified organic farmland, and the government’s expanding suite of sustainable agriculture schemes all point toward a sector in transition. The critical question is whether the pace of change will be sufficient to reverse soil degradation and ecological damage before they become irreversible constraints on India’s agricultural output.

What do you think? With urea remaining far cheaper than other fertilizers due to subsidies, is pricing reform the most effective lever to push Indian farmers toward balanced nutrient use – or would it place an unfair burden on small and marginal farmers? And as biopesticides currently cover only 8% of India’s pesticide market, what practical steps could accelerate their adoption without compromising crop protection?

References

1. https://www.fao.org/4/a0257e/a0257e05.htm
2. https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/fertilizer-sector-in-india
3. https://indiadatamap.com/2025/08/31/state-wise-analysis-of-indias-fertilizer-production-in-2025/
4. https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-news-analysis/fertiliser-consumption-in-india
5. https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/344935/files/Pesticide%20Use%20in%20Indian%20Agriculture-%20Trends,%20Market%20Structure%20and%20Policy%20Issues.pdf
6. https://www.horizonepublishing.com/index.php/PST/article/download/6210/version/6935/7017/49081
7. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/17/7839
8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11615616/
9. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-025-36009-y
10. https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org/article/india-climate-change-drives-pesticide-use-harming-farmers-health
11. https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1796561
12. https://www.pib.gov.in/PressNoteDetails.aspx?NoteId=152048&ModuleId=3&reg=3&lang=1
13. https://www.agrifarming.in/government-schemes-for-organic-farming-in-india